Within, Between, and Beyond: A Comparative Scoping Review of Adverse Childhood Experiences In Multiracial and Monoracial Youth

Background and Purpose: Compelling evidence indicates that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are disproportionately concentrated among ethnoracially marginalized populations; yet Multiracial populations remain largely overlooked in this literature. When included in study samples, Multiracial individuals are often aggregated into broader monoracial categories or omitted entirely, limiting understanding of how ACEs manifest within one of the fastest-growing U.S. populations. Although research on mental health disparities among Multiracial individuals is expanding, the early-life risk patterns that may contribute to these disparities remain underexamined. This scoping review addresses this gap by synthesizing research on ACE exposure among Multiracial populations, with a particular focus on comparing their experiences with those of monoracial White and monoracial minoritized groups.

Methods: This review was conducted following the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews reporting guideline. A systematic search of electronic databases (e.g., PubMed, ESCOhost, PsycInfo, Scopus) was performed to identify peer-reviewed articles. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they focused on Multiracial youth experiences of ACEs and reported on comparisons across ethnoracial groups. Titles, abstracts, and full texts were independently screened by reviewers. Data were extracted using a standardized structured matrix that captured key study characteristics and findings, and then analyzed thematically to identify patterns, themes, and gaps in the literature.

Results: Of the 778 records initially identified, 36 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final synthesis, spanning 15 years of empirical research. Most studies (80%) examined only one ACE subtype. Violence exposure was the most frequently studied subtype (n = 14), followed by social adversity (n = 11), household dysfunction (n = 8), cumulative ACE index scores (n = 7), and material hardship (n = 5). Included studies reported elevated ACE exposure among Multiracial youth, particularly compared with monoracial White peers, though rates relative to monoracial minoritized youth varied by subtype. Violence exposure, including maltreatment, vicarious trauma, and peer victimization, was frequently elevated for Multiracial youth, with trauma symptoms amplified for Multiracial youth holding additional marginalized identities, such as transgender or nonbinary youth. Social adversity, including discrimination, bullying, and exclusion, was generally higher than among monoracial White youth, while findings relative to monoracial minoritized peers were mixed. Household dysfunction, including parental mental illness, substance use, caregiver disruption, and incarceration, was consistently high, often exceeding levels observed in monoracial minoritized groups. Material hardship varied across Multiracial subgroups depending on racial-ethnic composition. Positive parent-child relationships and family cohesion buffered the effects of peer victimization and discrimination on Multiracial individuals’ mental health.

Conclusions and Implications: This scoping review highlights significant disparities in ACEs among Multiracial children, who often experience equal or higher exposure compared with monoracial peers. Despite growing research, gaps remain, particularly regarding the diversity of Multiracial identities, the role of racialized experiences, and non-traditional ACEs such as peer victimization and racial discrimination. Future studies should disaggregate Multiracial subgroups, clarify identity measures, and examine how phenotype, family socialization, and historical context shape ACE exposure and psychological outcomes. Practitioners and policymakers should provide culturally responsive, trauma-informed care and develop programs addressing the unique needs of Multiracial youth.