Online Social Networking and Loneliness In Chinese Adults: The Moderating Roles of Online and Offline Social Capital

Background and Purpose

The rapid expansion of internet use has transformed how individuals interact and build social relationships, yet understudied implications for loneliness remain. Social capital, defined as resources embedded in social networks, provides a useful framework for understanding these dynamics, particularly as its formation and function may differ across online and offline contexts. Prior research offers competing perspectives, including social enhancement (rich-get-richer) and social compensation (poor-get-richer) hypotheses, regarding who benefits more from internet use. In addition, media multiplexity theory suggests that individuals with stronger social ties are more likely to communicate across multiple channels. Building on these perspectives, this study examines the relationships among online social networking, social capital, and loneliness, with a focus on the moderating roles of online and offline social capital.

Methods

This study analyzed secondary data from an online cross-sectional survey conducted in mainland China between July and August 2022 using the Wenjuanxing platform. A total of 2,019 adults aged 18–79 were included for final analysis. Loneliness was assessed using the 5-item ALONE scale (cutoff ≥ 10) and the 8-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8) for robustness checks. Social capital included online and offline trust and support, measured on 5-point Likert scales and dichotomized into “agree” and “disagree.” Online social networking was measured on a 5-point Likert scale and dichotomized into high and low engagement. Other online activities, problematic internet use, and online fraud were also assessed. Multivariable logistic regression models examined associations with loneliness, adjusting for sociodemographic covariates. Interaction terms and subgroup analyses were conducted by age (< 50 vs. ≥ 50) and gender. Robustness analyses were conducted using continuous ALONE and ULS-8 scores, estimated via generalized linear models with robust standard errors.

Results

Online social networking (OR = 0.74, 95% CI [0.58, 0.95]), offline trust (OR = 0.70, 95% CI [0.49, 1.00]), and offline support (OR = 0.56, 95% CI [0.45, 0.70]) were negatively associated with loneliness. Both online (OR = 0.57, 95% CI [0.36, 0.92]) and offline support (OR = 0.59, 95% CI [0.38, 0.91]) significantly moderated the association between online social networking and loneliness. Interaction plots indicated that high engagement in online social networking was associated with lower loneliness, with stronger protective effects among individuals who agreed they had access to online or offline support when needed. Subgroup analyses revealed heterogeneity by age and gender, while the interaction between offline support and online social networking remained consistently significant across the full sample and subgroups. Robustness analyses yielded consistent findings.

Conclusions and Implications

Findings indicate that online social networking is associated with a reduced likelihood of loneliness, particularly among individuals with access to online and offline support. These results support the social enhancement hypothesis and media multiplexity theory, suggesting that individuals with greater social resources benefit more from online engagement. The findings highlight the importance of digital equity in facilitating meaningful online engagement and the foundational role of offline support in social work practice, and underscore the need to strengthen both online and offline social capital through integrated strategies to address loneliness.