Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence and Associated Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms Among Women In Zambia

Background and Purpose: Technology-facilitated gender-based violence (TFGBV), including harassment, monitoring, and abuse via digital platforms is an emerging form of violence with significant adverse consequences for women’s mental health. In low- and middle-income countries such as Zambia, rapid digital expansion has outpaced protective frameworks, potentially increasing women’s exposure to risk of online abuse. Vulnerable women, particularly those experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage, may face enormous risks of both violence and poor mental health outcomes. Therefore, this study examined the association between TFGBV and depressive and anxiety symptoms among women in Zambia.

Methods: This cross-sectional study utilized data from the 2024 Zambia Demographic and Health Survey (ZDHS), a nationally representative survey employing a stratified two-stage cluster sampling design. The analytic sample included women aged 15–49 years (N≈ 9,647). The primary independent variable included exposure to technology-facilitated gender-based violence (TFGBV), operationalized through indicators of digital harassment, unwanted monitoring, or threatening messages. Two main outcomes included (1) depressive symptoms and, (2) generalized anxiety symptoms. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and anxiety symptoms using Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) during the past two weeks. Covariates included age, education, employment status, resident type, household wealth, marital status, frequency of internet use, and partner-related factors such as alcohol use. Weighted descriptive statistics were used to calculate frequencies and percentages. While generalized linear regression models were conducted to determine significant association between predictors and outcomes using SPSS vs. 31.0 (p<.05).

Results: Out of 9,647 women participants, only 2.9% (n=280) reported experiencing technology-facilitated gender based-violence (TFGBV). The average score for depressive symptoms was 1.44 (SD=2.44) and anxiety symptoms was 1.16 (SD=2.38). Women who experienced TFGBV were associated with an increased likelihood of reporting depressive symptoms during the past 30 days in unadjusted linear regression (B=0.83, S.E=0.34; p=.015). TFGBV explained 1.2% variance in depressive symptoms. Similarly, in adjusted linear regression, women who experienced TFGBV were more likely to report depressive symptoms compared to women (B=0.83, S.E=0.34; p=.015). TFGBV explained 2.4% of depressive symptoms, slightly higher than in the previous model. On the other hand, in the unadjusted linear regression model, TFGBV was associated with decreased likelihood of reporting anxiety symptoms (B=0.83, S.E=0.34; p=.015). TFGBV explained 0.9% of the variance in anxiety symptoms. Similarly, in the adjusted linear regression model, TFGBV was associated with an increased likelihood of reporting anxiety symptoms during the past 30 days (B=0.83, S.E=0.34; p=.015). TFGBV explained 2.4% of the variance in anxiety symptoms during the past 30 days.

Conclusions and Implications: This study underscores the need for multilevel interventions needed to integrate digital safety and mental health services within existing gender-based violence programs. Social work practitioners should adopt trauma-informed, technology-aware approaches to screening and intervention. Policy efforts must strengthen legal protections against online abuse and expand digital literacy programs. Finally, multilevel strategies that address both technological risks and underlying social inequalities are essential to protect women’s mental health and well-being in Zambia.