Parents’ Perception of Inclusive Education at Primary Schools In Rural Afghanistan and Pakistan

Background and Purpose: Inclusive education is recognized as a global commitment under Sustainable Development Goal 4, which emphasizes the provision of quality, free, and equitable education for every learner, regardless of their background. This goes beyond merely opening school doors, calling instead for creating learning environments where every student, whether facing challenges related to disability, poverty, gender discrimination, or ethnic exclusion, can actively participate and thrive. In conflict and crisis contexts like Afghanistan and Pakistan, barriers to inclusion are particularly prevalent due to restricted school access, ingrained exclusionary cultural practices, and systemic economic constraints. In these contexts, parents, often burdened by low literacy and extreme poverty, struggle to provide the support necessary to create effective learning environments for their children. Yet, literature shows that parents care about their children’s education, with effects on academic achievement and socioemotional development. Most existing evidence comes from High-Income Countries, and limited knowledge exists about Low- and Middle-Income Countries. This study asks: (i) How do parents of primary-school-aged children in rural areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan perceive inclusive education? (ii) What factors do parents identify as influencing inclusive education? (iii) What benefits do parents believe inclusive education initiatives can foster?

Methods: This study was conducted in four districts of Afghanistan (Badakhshan, Ghazni, Takhar, and Jaghori) and four of Pakistan (Vehari, Ghotki, Bahawalnagar, and Rahim Yar Khan) using community-based system dynamics (CBSD). We conducted 120 Group Model Building workshops in Afghanistan (3 rounds; September 2018 to December 2021) and 201 workshops in Pakistan (4 rounds; September 2018 to January 2024), facilitated by trained local community members. Workshops were audio taped, and transcripts were translated from Dari and Pashto into English then thematically analyzed.

Results: Parents in 65% of workshops in Afghanistan and 33% in Pakistan associated inclusion with participation of all children, regardless of their personal characteristics (gender, age, ethnicity, socioeconomic background). Some groups (32% in Afghanistan, 48% in Pakistan) linked inclusion to children learning the curriculum - or some knowledge, more broadly defined - effectively and to high teaching quality. Parents expressed consensus on the need for a positive attitude among children towards education, which depends on having the material to learn, the environment in which learning happens, and teachers’ and peers’ roles and attitudes. Parents indicated that their own engagement was limited by different barriers, namely their own belief in their ability to help, lack of self-confidence, power imbalance in relationships with teachers, and, sometimes, their own negative experiences.

Conclusions and Implications: Parents in rural Afghanistan and Pakistan defined child inclusion multidimensionally, recognizing that it requires not just access but active participation, quality teaching, material resources, and supportive environments. Their ability to meaningfully engage with their children's education was constrained by structural and psychological barriers. Effective inclusive education initiatives must prioritize building parental confidence, repositioning parent-teacher relationships as collaborative, and addressing classroom climate and teacher attitudes, alongside access to school and material resources. Findings underscore the need for context-sensitive approaches and highlight the value of community-based participatory methods for informing education policy and interventions.