Early Disadvantage, Persistence, and Flourishing Among First- & Continuing-Generation Black College Students

Background and Purpose

First-generation college students (FGCS) of color represent more than 30% of the college student population and are more likely to come from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds. Exposure to early disadvantage has been linked to worse academic and mental health outcomes, including lower grade point averages and increased levels of psychological and financial stress. However, research suggests that Black students, in particular, experience additional stressors that may adversely affect their ability to persist in college. However, most studies fail to disaggregate Black students within the FGCS population, so less is known about their unique postsecondary experiences. Therefore, this study seeks to answer the following: 1) Does early disadvantage, persistence, and positive mental health (PMH) differ between Black FGCS and CGCS? and 2) To what extent do persistence and demographic and institutional characteristics explain additional variance in flourishing above and beyond early disadvantage in Black FGCS and CGCS?

Methods

This study analyzed data from the 2024-25 national, cross-sectional Healthy Minds Survey, which is an annual web-based survey. For this study, the analytic sample was restricted to respondents who self-identified as Black/African American and selected one gender identity. Respondents who did not meet these inclusion criteria or who had missing data on key study variables were excluded (n = 14). The final analytic sample consisted of 5,835 participants. Early disadvantage was measured using childhood financial stress, persistence was measured by confidence in completing one’s academic program, and flourishing was measured using the Flourishing Scale. Analyses included descriptive statistics, t-tests, and regression models stratified by first-generation status while controlling for age, gender identity, international status, enrollment status, and institution size.

Results

Sample participants were mostly first-generation (51%), female (76%), and U.S. citizens (91%). Most students reported feelings of persistence (96%) and met criteria for flourishing (45%). T-tests revealed that FGCS reported significantly greater early disadvantage (M = 3.53; SD = 1.17) than CGCS (M = 2.82; SD = 1.17; t = 23.13, p < .001); however, CGCS (M = 5.43; SD = 0.90) reported slightly higher levels of persistence than FGCS (M = 5.33; SD = 0.98; t = 4.10, p < .001). Flourishing scores did not significantly differ between FGCS and CGCS (p = 0.13). Hierarchical regression results showed that early disadvantage significantly predicted lower flourishing for both CGCS (β = −.074, p < .001) and FGCS (β = −.054, p = .002) after controlling for covariates. Persistence was the strongest predictor of flourishing in both groups (CGCS: β = .335, p < .001; FGCS: β = .311, p < .001), accounting for substantial additional variance in flourishing beyond demographics and early disadvantage.

Conclusions and Implications

Findings highlight that early disadvantage remains a significant risk factor for flourishing among Black students regardless of generational status, while persistence is a key protective factor. Results underscore the importance of disaggregating Black student experiences by first-generation status to better understand within-group variation and inform culturally responsive interventions aimed at promoting retention and thriving in Black college students.