Association between Adverse and Positive Childhood Experiences and Early Childhood Literacy Development Among U.S Children

Background and Purpose: Early childhood literacy is an important indicator of developmental readiness, academic achievement, and long-term educational equity. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) may impair literacy by disrupting the attachment relationships where shared reading and language learning occur, undermining the attention and executive functioning needed for decoding and comprehension, and reducing family resources that support enriched literacy environments. Conversely, positive childhood experiences (PCEs), such as mentorship, family resilience, and community support may strengthen the relational and cognitive foundations that early reading requires. However, limited population-level research has examined how ACEs and PCEs jointly shape early literacy. Therefore, this study examined associations between ACEs, PCEs, and early childhood literacy among U.S children.

Methods: Data were drawn from the 2023 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) involving children aged 6-17 years (N=10,311). The outcome variable included early literacy measured using a caregiver-reported, five-level item assessing how often the child demonstrates literacy-related behaviors (ranging from never to always). The two primary independent variables included ACEs and PCEs. This was operationalized as a cumulative index derived from eleven child-reported adversities (e.g., economic hardship, exposure to violence, parental incarceration, discrimination), categorized as 0 ACEs, 1 ACE, and 2 or more ACEs. PCEs included seven experiences (e.g., family resilience, guided mentorship, after-school and community activities, safe and supportive neighborhood, social–emotional competence) ranging from 0 to 7 PCEs. Ordinal logistic regression estimated odds ratios (AORs) while adjusting for child and family-related characteristics. Statistical analyses were conducted using Stata 17 (p<.05).

Results: Out of 10,311 children, 26.38% of them had experienced at least one ACE, and 21.40% had been exposed to two or more ACEs. ACE exposure was associated with decreased odds of higher literacy development. Compared to children with no ACEs, those with one ACE had lower odds of higher literacy development (AOR = 0.80, 95% CI [0.71, 0.91], p < .001), and those with two or more ACEs also showed decreased odds (AOR = 0.78, 95% CI [0.65, 0.93], p < .01). In contrast, PCEs were positively associated with literacy development (AOR = 1.22, 95% CI [1.15, 1.30], p < .001). Additionally, higher household income (AOR = 1.12, 95% CI [1.08, 1.15], p < .001), and higher caregiver education (AOR = 1.41, 95% CI [1.31, 1.52], p < .001) were associated with greater odds of higher literacy development.

Conclusions and Implications: The findings indicate that ACEs serve as risk factors for early literacy development, whereas PCEs may serve as protective factors to support resilience and literacy skill acquisition for children. Specifically, interventions that integrate caregiver coaching, shared book-reading practices, and mentorship within family-serving and early education settings may promote PCEs while directly reinforcing the literacy-supportive environments children need to thrive. Strengthening protective environments while addressing structural inequities is essential for advancing early literacy and long‑term well‑being. Policies that expand access to high-quality early childhood programs, public libraries, and economic support for low-income families represent critical structural levels for reducing literacy disparities among children facing adversity in low-resource settings in Zambia.