Conformity to Masculine Norms and Use of Sexual Aggression Among Sexual Minority Men

Background and Purpose

Sexual minority men experience sexual violence within a broader context of structural inequality, including heterosexism, cisnormativity, racism, and gendered power hierarchies. Conformity to dominant masculine norms—rooted in patriarchal systems that privilege dominance, control, and power over others—has been linked to the use of sexual aggression. However, most prior research has centered heterosexual, cisgender men and has not examined how these dynamics operate among sexual minority men, whose experiences are shaped by minority stress, marginalization, and intersecting identities.

Importantly, sexual minority men are not a monolithic group. Experiences of masculinity and associated behaviors are shaped by structural conditions and lived realities across gender identity (e.g., cisgender and transgender men) and race and ethnicity (e.g., White men and men of color). The current study examines associations between conformity to masculine norms, perceptions of sexual cues, and use of sexual aggression among sexual minority men, and tests whether these relationships vary across intersecting identities. This work is grounded in a social justice framework and aims to inform culturally responsive and structurally informed prevention strategies.

Methods

Data were drawn from the Strong Thriving and Resilient Men (STARM) project, an ongoing longitudinal study of cisgender and transgender sexual minority men aged 18 to 30 across the United States. The sample (N = 3,140) is racially and ethnically diverse and includes Black, Latine, Asian and Asian American, Indigenous, and White participants.

Measures included conformity to masculine norms using the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, capturing dimensions such as power over women, self-reliance, and risk-taking. Sexual aggression was assessed using the Sexual Experiences Survey. Covariates included gender identity, race and ethnicity, sexual identity, age, financial strain, prior sexual victimization, and adverse childhood experiences.

Ordinary least squares regression models conducted in Mplus examined predictors of lifetime use of sexual aggression, including masculine norms and perceptions of sexual cues.

Results

Findings indicate that inaccurate perceptions of sexual cues and endorsement of masculine norms rooted in dominance (i.e., power over women) were associated with higher use of sexual aggression. In contrast, self-reliance was associated with lower likelihood of use of sexual aggression, suggesting that some aspects of masculinity may function as protective factors depending on context. Older age and prior sexual victimization were also associated with higher use of sexual aggression.

These findings highlight how internalized norms shaped by broader systems of gendered power and inequality are linked to harm, while also pointing to heterogeneity in how masculinity operates across individuals.

Conclusions and Implications

This study underscores the importance of situating sexual violence within structural and intersectional frameworks. Findings suggest that prevention efforts must move beyond individual-level approaches to address the broader systems that shape gender norms, power, and behavior, including patriarchy, racism, and heterosexism.

Results point to the potential for leveraging adaptive aspects of masculinity, such as self-reliance, in culturally responsive and strengths-based interventions. Social work research and practice are uniquely positioned to advance multi-level prevention strategies that center equity, challenge harmful norms, and support sexual minority men across diverse identities and contexts.