Parental Involvement and Children's Behavioral Outcomes Among Economically Disadvantaged Families: A Longitudinal Study

Background: Children from low-income families face disproportionately elevated risks of behavioral problems, yet the protective role of distinct dimensions of parental involvement remains understudied, particularly in longitudinal designs. Whether low-income families differ from higher-income counterparts in specific forms of involvement, and whether family-level risk factors moderate these associations, remain open questions with significant policy implications.

Method: Data were drawn from the 2019 and 2021 waves of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics Child Development Supplement (PSID-CDS), a nationally representative longitudinal survey. The analysis sample included 936 children aged 6 to 11 in 2019. Parental involvement was divided into three dimensions: school-based involvement (volunteer events and participation in school activities), school communication (meetings with school principals and counselors), and family-based involvement (parent-child communication and family rules). Children’s behavioral outcomes in 2021 were measured using Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) total difficulties, externalizing, and internalizing subscales. Survey-weighted regression models with family-level clustering were estimated, controlling for child age, sex, race/ethnicity, caregiver employment, education, marital status, and income. Sensitivity analyses additionally controlled for baseline behavioral problems (BPI) in 2019.

Results: School-based parental involvement in 2019 was longitudinally associated with fewer behavioral problems in 2021. Volunteering predicted fewer total behavioral problems (β = -0.077, p = .037) and emotional problems (β = -0.062, p = .007), while attending school events was associated with fewer total, externalizing, and internalizing problems (βs = -0.268 to -0.103, all p < .05). In contrast, more parent-school communication predicted more behavioral problems (all p < .001). Family rules also emerged as a protective factor for total and conduct/peer problems (βs = -1.098 and -0.808, both p < .05). After controlling for baseline behavioral problems, school-based involvement effects were attenuated, while family rules remained significant. Descriptively, school-based involvement reported by low-income families was significantly lower than that of non-low-income families (p < .05), while no differences were found in family-based involvement. Neither income level nor family conflict significantly moderated these longitudinal associations.

Discussion: These findings indicate that different forms of parental involvement have distinct longitudinal associations with children's behavioral development. School-based involvement was associated with fewer subsequent behavioral problems, possibly reflecting stronger alignment between family and school behavioral expectations. The positive associations observed for school communication likely reflect reactive engagement, as parents may be more likely to meet with principals and counselors when children are already exhibiting problems. When controlling for baseline behavioral problems, family rules, a dimension in which low-income and higher-income families showed no significant difference, remained a stable protective factor, suggesting that low-income families already possess key resources for supporting children's behavioral outcomes. Lower levels of positive school engagement among low-income families appear to reflect structural rather than motivational barriers. Interventions should prioritize reducing barriers that prevent low-income families from participating in school activities while reinforcing family engagement practices already in place.