Developing a Global Framework for Reclusion: A Cross-National Study of South Korea, Japan, China, and Hong Kong

Background: Recent international media attention, including a CNN report (May 25, 2024) on hikikomori in Asia, suggests that extreme forms of social disengagement among young adults are no longer culturally bounded but emerging as a global concern. Although the concept originated in Japan, similar patterns are increasingly observed in South Korea, Mainland China, and Hong Kong. However, existing definitions remain country-specific, limiting theoretical integration and cross-national comparability. To address this gap, this study conducts a cross-national comparison to establish a globally applicable conceptualization of reclusion by identifying common characteristics across East Asia and informing how patterns may emerge in Western contexts.

Methods: This study conducted a comparative analysis of reclusive young adults across South Korea, Japan, Mainland China, and Hong Kong. Data were drawn from national policy documents, government reports, and peer-reviewed studies addressing definitions, characteristics, or policy responses related to reclusion. The unit of analysis was structured across six dimensions: terminology, duration thresholds, age boundaries, core characteristics, explanatory frameworks, and policy responses. A qualitative content analysis was employed to identify cross-national patterns and differences.

Results: Across South Korea, Japan, Mainland China, and Hong Kong, reclusion demonstrates shared characteristics despite cross-national differences. In all countries, it is marked by sustained withdrawal into private spaces, limited participation in education and employment, and reduced offline social engagement.

However, definitions and measurement approaches vary. South Korea and Japan commonly apply a six-month duration threshold and rely on behavioral or administrative criteria. In contrast, Mainland China and Hong Kong use a three-month threshold and more detailed classification systems that emphasize early identification and intervention.

In sum, reclusion is best conceptualized as a continuum rather than a fixed category, ranging from complete isolation to partial withdrawal. Across contexts, digital interaction remains common, suggesting that reclusion is defined more by reduced offline participation than total social disconnection. Policy responses also differ, with Korea and Japan emphasizing long-term family responsibility and support systems, while China and Hong Kong prioritize early intervention and community-based prevention strategies.

This study proposes a globally applicable definition of reclusion that captures its shared core and cross-national variations. Reclusion is defined as a condition in which an individual remains within a limited physical environment and demonstrates non-participation in major offline domains, including socio-economic activities and interpersonal relationships.

Conclusions: The findings identify an evolving form of reclusion in which physical seclusion coexists with digitally mediated interaction. Thus, reclusion is distinguished not by complete social isolation, but by the coexistence of physical seclusion and digital connection. To operationalize this concept, three criteria are proposed: (1) persistence for six months or longer, (2) substantial non-participation across key offline life domains, (3) inclusion of individuals with digital interaction. This framework provides a foundation for advancing reclusion as a global research and policy agenda. Focusing on East Asian contexts is important because these countries have accumulated the most extensive empirical evidence and intervention experiences related to reclusion. This unified conceptualization is critical for social work practice, as it establishes a shared language for research and informs evidence-based interventions.