Parental Efficacy, Masculinity Norms, and Depressive Symptoms Among Black Fathers of Autistic Children

Background:
Fathers of autistic children often play critical roles in caregiving, advocacy, and family functioning, yet their psychological well-being has received substantially less empirical attention than that of mothers. This gap is particularly pronounced for Black fathers, whose parenting experiences are shaped by the intersection of race, gender, and disability within social and institutional contexts marked by structural inequities. Research on autism caregiving has identified elevated stress and depressive symptoms among parents, but limited work has examined culturally informed psychosocial processes that may protect or undermine Black fathers’ mental health. Drawing on social cognitive theory, parental efficacy, defined as parents’ beliefs in their capacity to effectively manage caregiving demands, has been identified as a key resilience factor that promotes adaptive coping and stress regulation. In contrast, adherence to mainstream or restrictive masculinity norms emphasizing emotional control, self-reliance, and toughness may constrain help-seeking and emotional expression, potentially increasing vulnerability to psychological distress. Integrating sociocognitive, sociocultural, and family stress perspectives, the present study examines how parental efficacy and mainstream masculinity norms are associated with depressive symptoms among Black fathers of autistic children.

Methods:
Participants were 138 Black fathers of autistic children who completed an online survey assessing psychosocial and demographic characteristics. Parental efficacy was measured using a modified version of the Brief Parental Efficacy Scale adapted to reflect autism-related caregiving and advocacy tasks. Adherence to mainstream masculinity norms was assessed using items from the Masculinity Inventory Scale capturing endorsement of emotional restriction, self-reliance, and toughness. Depressive symptoms were measured using the Depression subscale of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales (DASS). Demographic covariates included age, annual income, marital status, and number of children in the household. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to examine whether parental efficacy and masculinity norms uniquely predicted depressive symptoms after adjusting for covariates. Model assumptions were assessed and met.

Results:
The overall regression model was statistically significant, explaining 23.0% of the variance in depressive symptoms. Higher parental efficacy was significantly associated with lower depressive symptoms (b = −2.52, SE = 0.80, p = .002), indicating a protective effect of confidence in managing autism-related parenting demands. In contrast, greater adherence to mainstream masculinity norms was significantly associated with higher depressive symptoms (b = 0.17, SE = 0.07, p = .020). Among covariates, married fathers reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms compared to unmarried fathers, while higher income was unexpectedly associated with greater depressive symptoms. Age and number of children were not significant predictors.

Conclusions:
Findings highlight parental efficacy as a modifiable resilience factor and restrictive masculinity norms as a culturally embedded risk factor for depressive symptoms among Black fathers of autistic children. Results underscore the importance of father-inclusive and culturally responsive interventions that strengthen caregiving efficacy while critically addressing masculinity beliefs to support paternal mental health and family well-being.