Distinguishing Structured and Non-Sport Recreation: Examining the Role of Recreation In the Association between Violence Exposure and Mental Health Among U.S. High School Students

Background: The United States is facing a youth mental health crisis, with increasing rates of depression, suicidality, and behavioral risk outcomes among adolescents. Violence exposure is a well-established risk factor for adverse mental health outcomes, yet the role of recreation remains insufficiently understood. Existing research often treats recreation as uniformly protective without distinguishing between structured team sports and non-sport physical activity. Guided by the Conservation of Resources (COR) framework, this study examines whether structured recreation and non-sport physical activity mediate the associations between violence exposure and internalizing and externalizing symptoms among high school students.

Methods: Data were drawn from the 2021–2023 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), a nationally representative survey of U.S. high school students in grades 9–12. Two survey-adjusted generalized structural equation models with parallel pathways were estimated, with violence exposure as the predictor, structured recreation and non-sport physical activity as mediating variables, and internalizing and externalizing outcomes as dependent variables. Internalizing outcomes were measured as a binary composite of persistent sadness/hopelessness and suicidality. Externalizing outcomes were measured as a composite of substance use and violent behaviors. Violence exposure was defined as any bullying, physical fighting, or weapon-related threat. Structured recreation was operationalized as organized sports participation, and non-sport physical activity as physical activity outside organized sports, including physical education attendance and muscle-strengthening, both serving as proxies for non-team, goal-oriented physical exertion. Models adjusted for gender, race/ethnicity, and grade level.

Results: Violence exposure was strongly associated with internalizing symptoms (OR=4.04, p<.001). Neither structured recreation nor non-sport physical activity was directly associated with internalizing outcomes. For externalizing outcomes, violence exposure was associated with increased odds of externalizing behaviors and with greater participation in non-sport physical activity (OR=1.20, p=.029). Mediation analyses indicated a statistically significant positive indirect pathway through non-sport physical activity for externalizing outcomes (p=.033), suggesting that violence-exposed youth were more likely to engage in non-sport physical activity, which in turn was associated with higher odds of externalizing behaviors. The pathway involving structured recreation was not significant (p=.176). No comparable indirect pathway was observed for internalizing symptoms.

Discussion: Findings suggest that the role of recreation in the context of violence exposure is more nuanced than a simple protective-factor model would imply. Rather than functioning uniformly as a buffer, non-sport physical activity was associated with increased behavioral risk among violence-exposed youth. In contrast, no comparable pattern was observed for internalizing symptoms or for structured team sports. Per the COR framework, threatened youth may avoid the resource-draining scrutiny inherent in structured recreation, opting instead for less supervised physical activity as a form of self-regulation. Without structured oversight, however, this coping strategy may inadvertently normalize rather than curb externalizing behaviors. These findings underscore the importance of distinguishing between structured recreation and non-sport physical activity when designing interventions for adolescent mental health. Furthermore, the findings suggest that cuts to such programming may push vulnerable youth toward recreational contexts that amplify, rather than mitigate, risk behaviors. For social work practice and policy, the results make a case for investment in structured, supervised recreational programming.