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Parenting during the transition from foster care to adulthood represents a critical developmental turning point shaping educational, economic, and relational trajectories. Youth in foster care face elevated risks of early parenthood and related adverse outcomes. Although disparities among transition-age youth are well documented, less is known about how outcomes diverge over time between parenting (PFY) and non-parenting youth (NPFY). This study examines longitudinal trends in parenting status and associated outcomes across multiple domains.
Methods
We analyzed longitudinal data from the California Youth Transitions to Adulthood Study (CalYOUTH), a representative sample of youth who had been in California foster care for at least six months (n=727). Participants were interviewed at approximately ages 17, 19, 21, and 23. Parenting status was measured at each wave and used to classify youth over time. Outcomes included education, employment, and health, and hardship indicators. Group differences were examined using chi-square tests for select dichotomous outcomes. Analyses were conducted separately by wave to assess statistically significant (p < .05) differences between PFY and NPFY.
Results
The percentage of PFY increased substantially over time, from 7% at age 17 to 42% at age 23. Parenting was increasingly concentrated among females, rising from 10% to 52%, compared to 3% to 24% among males. Differences by sexual minority status were not statistically significant, and racial and ethnic differences diminished over time. At age 17, compared to NPFY, PFY reported a lower rate of school enrollment (79% vs. 91%), and a lower rate of substance use disorder (6% vs. 22%). Across ages 19 and 23, NPFY showed higher levels of education and employment. By age 23, NPFY had higher rates of high school completion (88% vs. 77%), college enrollment (70% vs. 56%), and college degree attainment (16% vs. 4%). Employment was higher among NPFY at age 21 (62% vs. 43%) and 23 (66% vs. 52%). PFY had higher rates of CalFRESH (California’s SNAP) receipt at age 23 (63% vs. 32%). PFY had lower rates of mental health disorders 21 (16% vs. 28%), while NPFY had higher substance use disorder rates at 21 and 23.
Conclusions and Implications
Findings indicate that early parenthood among youth in foster care is associated with sustained differences in education and economic outcomes, while health and hardship outcomes remain similar over time. PFY consistently experienced lower levels of school completion and employment and higher reliance on public assistance. These patterns highlight the need for targeted, equitable supports that strengthen access to education, workforce pathways, and material resources for young parents. Investing in supports has implications beyond individual outcomes, shaping broader opportunities for stability, family well-being, and community participation as youth transition into adulthood and assume caregiving roles.