Beyond Contact Frequency: The Unique Role of Parent-Child Relationship Quality In Loneliness and Depression In Later Life

Background and Purpose: Parent-child relationships remain central to older adults' psychological well-being, yet their unique contribution beyond other social ties is not well established. Most empirical research has examined global social support without isolating parent-child bonds, conflating different sources of relationships. In this study, we examined the extent to which parent-child relationship quality, beyond contact frequency, is uniquely associated with loneliness and depressive symptoms in older adults, after accounting for sociodemographic factors, health status, and relationship quality with other family members and friends. We further examined which relationship quality dimension shows the strongest association with each outcome.

Methods: The analytic sample for this study included Leave-Behind questionnaire respondents with living children (N=2,198) in the 2022 Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative survey of U.S. adults aged 51 and older. Loneliness was measured with the 11-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (α=.88), and depression was assessed with the 8-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies’ Depression Scale (CES-D; α=.81). Parent-child relationship quality (each measured on a 4-point scale) was assessed with: (1) positive quality (understanding, reliability, and openness; α=.84); and (2) negative quality (demands, criticism, disappointment, and irritation; α=.76). Contact frequency, via in-person or other means (α=.58) was assessed on a 6-point scale, with higher scores representing higher frequency. Controls included age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, household income, marital status, self-rated health, chronic conditions, and relationship quality with other family and friends. Survey-weighted hierarchical multiple regression was fitted in four sequential blocks

Results: Parent-child relationship quality significantly improved model fit for both loneliness (ΔR² = .112, p < .001) and depression (ΔR² = .029, p < .001) beyond all controls. Both positive quality and absence of negative interactions were independently associated with both outcomes. Comparison of standardized coefficients across outcomes indicated that positive relationship quality was significantly more strongly associated with loneliness (β = −0.33) than depression (β = −0.14, p < .001), while negative interactions had comparable effects across both outcomes (p = .062). Contact frequency was not significant for either outcome. Parent-child quality was the only significant social relationship domain predicting depression; friendship quality additionally predicted loneliness (b = −1.94, p < .001).

Conclusion and Implication: The finding that parent-child quality is the sole significant social relationship factor for loneliness and depression underscores the distinct importance of intergenerational bonds. Our study also provides empirical support for the Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (Carstensen, 1992), which characterizes later life as prioritizing emotionally meaningful relationships and investing in a smaller circle of close social partners; as well as the Convoy Model of Social Relations (Antonucci et al., 2014), which emphasizes parent-child bonds as the most stable and enduring layer of older adults' support networks. At the clinical level, aging-service providers should assess and address relationship qualities, rather than simply encouraging more frequent contact. At the policy level, these findings support investment in intergenerational programming and family-centered approaches within aging services. Future research should examine these associations longitudinally, compare outcomes by marital status, and identify alternative sources of support for those who lack intergenerational ties.