Engraving Identity: Arhat Carvings and the sacred landscape of Medieval Hangzhou

This paper investigates a constellation of natural grottoes in the mountainous terrain surrounding Hangzhou, where images of arhats, the saintly disciples of Sakyamuni Buddha, were carved directly into cliff faces during the tenth century. Integrating traditional art historical methods with theories of body, gaze, geo-aesthetics, and landscape, as well as eco-art historical approaches, this study examines how these relief carvings dynamically interacted with their environment to shape the sacred landscape of medieval Hangzhou. Rather than viewing these sculptures as isolated devotional icons, I argue that they formed part of a broader geo-aesthetic strategy through which newly established Chan (Zen) monasteries negotiated their identity. The arhat images, drawn from traditional iconography yet modeled on contemporary monks, reinforced local monastic identity by blending supernatural presence with corporeal realism.

Through comparative analysis with contemporaneous arhat paintings preserved in Japanese and Western collections, as well as with arhat carvings in Southwest China, this paper highlights the distinctive artistic language of the Hangzhou region’s arhat grottoes. These arhat grottoes served not only devotional purposes but also played critical roles in visualizing monastic identity, attracting lay patronage, and securing imperial recognition. By foregrounding the interplay between image, landscape, and the politics of place-making, this research offers a deeper understanding of Hangzhou’s medieval legacy—one that continues to resonate today, as these arhat grottoes draw modern visitors, inviting renewed reflection on the enduring relationship between faith, art, and the geo-aesthetics of landscape.